A literary situation of Nepali Mother Tongues!#

June 15, 2024

- Amar Tumyahang [Ambar Jang Limbu]

Abstract

Nepal is "the multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious, multi-cultural" (preamble, the Constitution of Nepal, 2015) nation following the variety in geographical diversity. Though the past Nepali rulers never appreciated the essence of it. In deed, all the languages of Nepal are equally sovereign but the rulers had always been biased to all ethnic languages and only favored Khas Nepali which was used as the official language by rulers. Still, it has been used as the single official language naming it as Nepali language written in Nagari script, constitutionally announcing, "The Nepali language in the Devnagari script shall be the official language of Nepal" (article 7). However other Nepali languages especially which are originated in Nepali soil, are developed in some extent because of sacrifice of laureates and freedom fighters. Such a contribution of mother tongue by conscious scholars, maintains the multilingualism in the nation to this date. The Constitution of Nepal 2015 (article 6) encoded "All languages spoken as the mother tongues in Nepal are the languages of the nation." In this context, what the ground realistic situation of mother tongue literature in Nepal, is the main exploration try to be done in this paper. The study of the literary situation of Nepali mother tongues is done on the basis of geological groups of languages. This study is done using secondary data especially the report of National Population and Housing Census, 2011, and various publications of language and literature which are published by governmental organizations and foundations of Nepal.

Key Words

Mother Tongue, literature, inclusion, textbooks, anthology, boarder language, ecological region.

Background

Nepal is the multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious, multi-cultural (preamble, The Constitution of Nepal, 2015) nation but such identity of the nation is still in the situation of suppression. The hegemony of the state for the Shah-Rana to Panchayat and even in democratic period, especially Hindu favored identities became the raison d'être of the Nepalese with its national identity rooted in the image of Parbate (hill) high castes and their mother tongue (parbate/Nepali) (Gurung, 2007:13). Such hegemonic state, not only held back rich language like Newari which had been used as official language in Lichhivi and Malla reign, it also set fire on the documents of Khambuwan and Limbuwan and even banned to read and write in their languages. The freedom fighters who fought for their own religion, culture, language and literature, they were prisoned and many were massacred, too.

Although Radio Nepal that began from Biratnagar after 1951's movement against autocratic familial Rama regime broadcasted news in Khasa Nepali and Nepal Bhasa (Newari). But King Mahendra banned news, programs and advertisement broadcasted in Newari after his military take over and imposition of autocratic kingship (based on personal conversation with Prof. Maniklal Shrestha). Then, Panchayat nationalism promoted Hindi in mass media but adopted the blinkered policy of outlawing the indigenous languages of the nation. Owing to this after 1960s decade, the slogan of of ek bhasha, ek bhesh, ek dharma, ek desh (one language, one way of dress, one religion, one nation) was stressed. Consequently, the campaign of existence and identity of indigenous nationalities, Madhesis and minorities was blamed adversely as ethnic and separatist movement. It halted the use of their mother tongues and scripts in education and publications. Madhesis, indigenous nationalities, Dalits, minorities and non-Hindus were savagely victimized because of such biased suppression of the state. The movement of 1989 to get rid of such malpractices reestablished democracy in Nepal. The constitution promulgated in 1990 after the mass movement of 1989 also could not accept Nepal as multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious nation. It continued existing discrimination, although it seems comparatively more progressive than the previous one language policy stating that the Nepali language in the Devanagari script is the language of the nation of Nepal and all the languages spoken as the mother tongue in the various parts of Nepal are the national languages of Nepal. (Part 6. Article 1 and 2, The Constitution of Kingdom of Nepal, 1990). Though it was so, after the mass movement news was broadcasted in Maithili, Newari and Hindi from Radio Nepal.

Similarly, National Language Policy Recommendation Commission (NLPRC) recommended the gradual broadcast of news and other programs in various national languages, for the provision of broadcasting information and advertisement in different national languages through radio and television, the need of publishing textbooks on various national languages (National Languages Policy Recommendation Commission, 1993, p.31). After these NLPRC recommendations, though Radio Nepal broadcasted news and programs in some languages through regional transmission, it could not be implemented in case of government newspapers (Tumyahang & Salam, 2011).

However, after the formation of the constitution in 1990 then government ran news and entertainment programs in indigenous languages through Radio Nepal. Similarly, the foundation of literary creation in indigenous languages was laid by then Nepal Academy's initiation of publishing literatures in indigenous languages, establishment of National Indigenous Development Committee (present National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities), and beginning of writing and publishing optional text books of primary level in different indigenous languages by Curriculum Development Centre in 1997. After the successful completion of great mass movement of 2006/7 and introduction of republic in the nation, the new horizon of literary creation in indigenous languages has commenced because of governmental media (Gorkhapatra, Nepal Television), F. M. radios, media developed by modern science and technologies (website, blog, skype etc.) and newspapers run autonomously by different linguistic communities through their own venture.

This paper provides cursory glance at the literature of indigenous languages spoken in Nepal. Here Nepali literature is discussed as literature composed in the languages originated in Nepal. The languages are discussed on the basis of National Population and Housing Census, 2011 (NPHC11), following ecological region i.e. mountain, hill and Terai of Nepal.

Censuses of Nepal and Numbers of Languages

The first population census of Nepal was conducted in 1911 A.D. Nepal has been conducting population censuses almost decennially and the latest census 2011 was the eleventh. Among these population censuses, languages were listed as below.

Table 1

S.N.	Census Year	Numbers of Mother Tongues
1.	1911	Not mentioned.
2.	1920	Not mentioned.
3.	1930	Not mentioned.
4.	1941	Not mentioned.
5.	1952/54	56
6.	1961	33
7.	1971	16
8.	1981	17
9.	1991	31
10.	2001	92
11.	2011	123

Source: Census reports (1911-2011)

Language Families of Languages spoken in Nepal and its Speaker Percentage

According to NPHC Report 2011, the languages spoken in Nepal are divided into five language families. Those language families and their speaker percentage are as follows.

Table 2

S. N.	Language Family	Population Census and speaker percentage
S. N.	Language Family	1952/54	1961	1971	1981	1991	2001	2011
1.	Indo-Aryan	77.25%	79.26%	78.51%	82.75%	79.63%	79.24%	82.65%
2.	Tibeto-Burman	20.97%	19.14%	17.07%	11.97%	16.63%	18.23%	17.46%
3.	Austro-Asiatic	-	-	-	-	-	-	0.19%
4.	Dravidian	-	-	-	-	-	-	0.13%
5.	Kusunda	-	-	-	-	-	-	28 persons

Source: Census reports (1952/54-2011)

Languages on the basis of Ecological Belt or Geographical Region

It is technically difficult to distinctively divide the languages on the basis of geographic region. However, on the basis of settlement of the language speakers, it is tried to be divided them into geographic region. The Khas Nepali, constitutionally has been recognized as the official language naming as 'Nepali Language', is spoken throughout the nation as the official language or lingua-franca. Similarly, sign language also could not be confined into the geographic region, it is used throughout the nation where is it needed. Following the national report of NPHC11 of Nepal, languages which are listed below, can be divided as given geographical regions.

Table No. 3

SN	Geographical Region	No. of Languages	Languages
1.	Mountain	17	1. Sherpa, 2. Thami, 3. Kulung, 4. Thulung, 5. Khaling, 6. Jirel, 7. Hyolmo, 8. Lohorung, 9. Mewahang, 10. Lhomi, 11. Dolpali, 12. Yamphu, 13. Byansi, 14. Dhuleli, 15. Waling (Walung), 16. Bajhangi, 17. Lhopa.
2.	Hill	61	1. Tamang, Newar, 3. Magar, 4. Bantawa, 5. Gurung, 6. Limbu, 7. Chamling, 8. Chepang, 9. Danuwar, 10. Sunuwar, 11. Majhi, 12. Yakkha, 13. Sampang, 14. Thakali, 15. Chhantyal, 16. Tibetan, 17. Dumi, 18. Wambule, 19. Puma, 20. Nachhiring, 21. Dura, 22. Pahari, 23. Lapcha/Lepcha, 24. Bahing, 25. Hayu, 26. Ghale, 27. Chhiling, 28. Chinese, 29. Sanskrit, 30. Kaike, 31. Khamchi (Raute), 32. Baram, 33. Tilung, 34. Jero/Jerung, 35. Dungmali, 36. Orio, 37. Lingkhim, 38. Kusunda, 39. Koche, 40. Sam, 41. Dzongkha, 42. Chhintang, 43. Mizo, 44. Nagamese, 45. English, 46. Rai, 47. Athpariya, 48. Achhami, 49. Kham, 50. Spanish, 51. Rasian, 52. Belhare, 53. Phangduwali, 54. Surel, 55. Baitadeli, 56. Bankaria, 57. French, 58. Manage, 59. Gadhawali, 60. Koyi/Koyu, and 61. Kumal.
3.	Terai	43	1. Maithili, 2. Bhojpuri, 3. Tharu, 4. Awadhi, 5. Santhali, 6. Uranw, 7. Dhimal, 8. Kisan, 9. Tajouriya, 10. Khash, 11. Doteli, 12. Bajjika, 13. Urdu, 14. Rajbanshi, 15. Bote, 16. Hindi, 17. Meche, 18. Magahi, 19. Kagate, 20. Ganagai. 21. Bangla, 22. Rajsthani, 23. Angika, 24. Bhujel, 25. Darai, 26. Raji, 27. Khariya, 28. Panjabi, 29. Musalman, 30. Sindhi, 31. Hariyanwi, 32. Kurmali, 33. Kuki, 34. Assami (Assames), 35. Malpande, 36. Arabi, 37. Jumli, 38. Dailekhi, 39. Sonaha, 40. Dadeldhuri, 41. Bajureli, 42. Darchuleli, 43. Sadhani.

Source: NPHC Report, 2011

Scripts use in Nepal

Some scripts which are being used in Nepal are as following:

Table 4

SN	Script	Language
1.	Nagari/Devnagari	Nepali, Maithili, Bhojpuri, Avadhi, Newar, Tamang, etc.
2.	Sabhota	Tibetan, Sherpa, Mugali, Tamang, Lhomi, etc.
3.	Ranjana	Newar
4.	Bhuji )mo:	Newar
5.	Pachu)mo:	Newar
6.	Golamo:	Newar
7.	Litumo:	Newar
8.	Ku)mo:	Newar
9.	Kirat Sirijanga	Yakthung Limbu
10.	Rong	Lepcha
11.	Bengali	Bangla
12.	Akha	Magar
13.	Arabic	Urdu
14.	Paataa/Tirhuta/Mithilakshar	Maithili
15.	Santali (Ol Chiki)	Sanghal
16.	Kirat Wambule	Wambule [developed from Kirat Sirijanga script]

Literary Development in Mother Tongue

(a) The Situation of MTs Literature before 1990

The works done in MTs literature could be divided into various periods i.e. Lichhavi period, Malla period, Shah Period, Rana period, democratic period (1950-1962) and Panchayat regime period. However, MTs literature was written very less in those periods. Some MTs such as Newari, Maithili, Limbu, Bhojpuri, Awadhi etc., which are recognized as languages of nation by present Nepali constitution, the literatures were written it that period. The literature found in those languages, are described as following on the basis of geological region.

The Literature of Hill Region Language Group

Newari Literature

The Newari, it is claimed as Nepa: Bhay: (Nepal Bhasa) by Newar community, is a major hilly region language in which literature had been written for long time even from Lichhavi and Malla periods. The cause was that Newari language used as state language in Lichhavi and Malla reign. According to Prof. Prem Shanti Tuladhar- story, poem, drama etc. were written in Newari language even in primary period (1505-1847 AD) and great epic composer Siddhi Das Amatya wrote more than 44 prose and poem books in medieval period (1848-1940 AD). It is believed that modern age of Newari literature commenced from 1941 AD. After this time, hundreds of books of prose and proem were published in Newari language.

Limbu Literature

Limbu literature is divided into as primary period (1704-1924 AD), medieval period (1925-1955 AD) and modern period after 1956 AD (Kainla and Tumyahang, 2008). Because of the unfavorable political situation of Nepal, in primary, medieval and pre-period of modern age, Limbu MT literature was especially developed in then Sikkim country and West Bengal. In the decade of 1950, after the establishment of democracy in Nepal, Iman Sing Chemjang, Kaji Man Kandangwa etc. contributed to develop the Limbu creative literature writing field. After the establishment of Limbu School Nisam-Heem in Kalempong in 1938, and also the commencement of Limbu language teaching learning in primary schools of then Sikkim country, it took a great leap in Limbu MT literature development process.

Jirel Literature

Suman Krishna Jirel composed a poem entitled 'Banki Duk' in 1972. It was published in Chyordung, a local newspaper of Dolkha Charicot, edited by Indra Bahadur Jirel.

The Literature of Terai Region Language Group

Maithili Literature

Among Terain languages, the Maithili language has long literary tradition, which was being existed as royal or higher-class language and had been used as state language. Dr. Ganga Prasad Akela (2008) mentioned the history of Maithili literature's primary period began in 700 and extended up to 1325 AD, and the medieval period began 1325 and extended up to 1860 AD. In the same way, it is believed the modern age of the Maithili literature started in on 1860. Such as great literary figures like Jyotiriswar Thakur, great poet Kokil Vidhyapati etc. are the morning stars of the Maithili literature. The Maithili literature had great influence in all three then kingdoms of Kathmandu valley i.e. Kantipur, Patan and Bhadgaun.

Tharu Literature

Mahesh Chaudhary (2008) wrote the literature development of Tharu language commenced in 1971. 'Hamra O Hamaar Bann' composed by Jib Raj Acharya was published in 1954. Same way, Rup Lal Mahato's 'Danggisaran Katha' and 'Barkimar O Gurubabaki Jamauti' in 1959, Ram Prasad Raya's play 'Bahuwa Aur Bahuriya' was published in 1962. Another important publications, Mahesh Chaudhary and Sira Ram Chaudhary's duo great epic 'Barkimar' and Mahesh Chaudhary's great epic 'Guru Babak Jalmauti' were published in 1982.

Awadhi Literature

Viswa Nath Pathak and Vikram Mani Tripathi (2008) wrote that Awadhi literature could divided in four periods i.e. (a) Heroic period (769-1418), (b) Devotional period (1418-1643), (c) Oedipus or erotic period (1643-1843) and modern age (1843 to till this day). It illustrates the long history of Awadhi literature writing tradition.

(B) Period of 1990 to 2005

The Literature Situation of Mountain Region MT, Published in this Period, were as below:

Then Royal Nepal Academy (RNA) published Rastriya bhasaka kavitaharu: an anthology of poems of national languages, in 1993. It was edited by Mohan Koirala, included poetries of Sherpa, Khaling and Thulung languages of mountain ecological region.

Bairagi Kainla and Amrit Yonjan edited Rastriya bhasaka babita bangalo: an anghology of poems of national languages in 1999. It was published National Committee for Development of Nationalities (NCDN). The poems of Sherpa, Thami, Jirel, Thulung, and Hyolmo were published in this anthology.

National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities (NFDIN) published Rastriya bhasaka babita bangalo: an anthology of poems of national languages in 2003. This volume II included the poems of Thami, Kumal, Kulung, Hyolmo and Dolpali (Dolpo) from mountain language group.

The Literature Situation of Hill region MT, Published in this Period, were as below:

In publication of RNA in 1993, aforesaid anthology, included poetries of Tamang, Newar, Magar, Bantawa, Gurung and Limbu languages of hill region.

In the publication of NCDN in 1999, aforesaid anthology, included the poems of Gurung, Tamang, Newar, Magar, Magar Kham, Bantawa, Limbu, Chamling, Sunuwar, Yakha, Thakali, Chhantyal, Wambule, Koyi (Koyu) and Dura language from languages group of hill region.

In the publication of NFDIN in 2003, aforesaid anthology, included the poems of Chepang, Limbu, Nachhiring, Tamang, Chamling, Bantawa, Magar, Yakkha, Athar Magar, Majhi, Dura, Sunuwar, Gurung, Newar, Wambule, Koyi (Koyu) language from hilly languages group.

The Literature Situation of Terai region MT, Published in this Period, were as below:

In publication of RNA in 1993, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Tharu, Bhojpuri, and Maithili languages of Terai region.

In the publication of NCDN in 1999, aforesaid anthology, included the poems of Tharu, Dhimal, Rajbansi, and Santhal language from languages group of Terai region.

In the publication of NFDIN in 2003, aforesaid anthology, included the poems of Tharu, Rajbanshi Bote and Santhal language from Terai languages group.

(C) After 2006

The 2006 Democracy Movement which is also known as Jana Andolan II ("People's Movement-II) gradually transformed Nepal from feudal monarchy to republic nation, and new constitution (interim constitution of 2007 and Constitution of 2015) led the nation toward new direction which influenced in the language development, too. The changes have been seen after 2006 is as following.

The Literature Situation of Mountain Belt MT, Published in this Period, are as below:

Nepal Academy (NA) published Matribhasa Divas 2011: an anthology of poems of MTs in 2011. It included poems of Thami, Jirel, Sherpa, and Dolpo language from mountain region languages group.

Nepal Rasta Bank (NRB) published bimonthly magazine Mirmire as an especial issue of Nepali MTs in same year 2011. It included poems of Byasi (Sauka), Jirel, Thami, Yolmo, Lhomi, and Khaling language from mountain region languages group.

In 2012, NA published Matribhasa Divas 2012: an anthology of poems, included poems of Sherpa, Lhomi, Khaling, Kulung, Mewahang and Thami language from mountain region languages group.

NA published Matribhasa Divas 2013: an anthology of poems in 2013. It included poems of Thami, Mewahang, Jirel, Lohorung, Yamphu, Kulung, and Hyolmo language from mountain languages group.

NFDIN published Thunga: anthology of poems in indigenous language of Nepal, in 2013. It included poems of Sherpa, Thulung, Mugali, Lhomi, and Dolpo language from mountain languages group.

The volume IV of Thunga: anthology of poems in indigenous language of Nepal, was published by NFDIN in 2014. It contained the poems of Dolpo, Khaling, Jirel, and Thami language from mountain languages group. In this volume, poems of Mugali language also published but the language is not listed in national census report.

Matribhasa Divas 2015: an anthology of poems was published by NA in 2015. It included poems of Kulung, Khaling, Jirel, Thami, Mugali, and Lhomi language from mountain languages group. The poems of new two languages called Humli and Nhinba, which are spoken in mountain ecological region also are compiled in this book but these languages are not listed in national census report.

NFDIN published V volume of Thunga: anthology of poems in indigenous language of Nepal, in 2015. It contained the poems of Kulung, Lhomi, Jirel, and Thami language from mountain languages group.

NFDIN published VI volume of Thunga: anthology of poems in indigenous language of Nepal in 2016. It contained the poems of Kulung, Lhomi, Jirel, and Thami language from mountain languages group.

The Literature Situation of Hill Region MT, Published in this Period, were as below:

In publication of NA in 2011, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Gurung, Newar, Bantawa, Limbu, Wambule, Sunuwar, Tamang, Magar and Kumal language from hill region languages group.

In publication of NRB in 2011, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Wambule, Sunuwar, Bantawa, Chamling, Magar, Dumi, Jero (Jerung), Bahing, Gurung, Newar, Tamang, Limbu, and Kumal language from hill region languages group.

In publication of NA in 2012, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Majhi, Tamang, Gurung, Achhami, Newar, Bahing, Bantawa, Wambule, Danuwar, and Limbu language from hill region languages group.

In publication of NA in 2013, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Wambule, Bahing, Thakali, Limbu, Dumi, Tamang, Magar, Kumal, Bantawa, Danuwar, Sunuwar, Chamling, Baram, Yakkha, Ghale, Nachhiring, Puma and Chhantyal language from hill region languages group.

In publication of NFDIN in 2013, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Limbu, Gurung, Koyi (Koyu), Bahing, Magar (Kham), Puma, Tamang, Yakkha, Lapcha, Wambule, Baram, Magar (Dhut), Chamling, Newar, Sunuwar, Danuwar, and Bantawa language from hill region languages group.

In publication of NFDIN in 2014, aforesaid anthology of poems in indigenous language of Nepal, included poems of Bahing, Sunuwar, Magar, Nachhiring, Sampang, Dungmali, Limbu, Dumi, Wambule, Tamang, Chamling, Bantawa, Gurung, Danuwar, Kumal, and Koyu language from hill region languages group.

In publication of NA in 2015, aforesaid anthology of poems in indigenous language, included poems of Kumal, Gurung, Ghale, Chamling, Tamang, Thakali, Danuwar, Dungmali, Dumi, Dura, Nachiring, Nepal Bhasa (Newar), Baram, Bantawa, Bahing, Magar Kaike, Magar Kham, Magar Dhut, Yakkha, Limbu, Wambule, Sampang, and Sunuwar language from hill region languages group.

In publication of NFDIN in 2015, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Sunuwar, Baram, Bahing, Nachhiring, Limbu, Newar, Lowa (Lhopa), Wambule, Puma, Dumi, Chamling, Bantawa, Dungmali, Gurung, Magar Kham, Magar Kaike, Magar Dhut, Kagate, Yakkha, Danuwar and Kumal language from hill region languages group.

In publication of NFDIN in 2016, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Sunuwar, Koyi (Koyu), Gurung, Chamling, Chhintang, Tamang, Dungmali, Dumi, Nachhiring, Newar, Puma, Bantawa, Bahing, Magar Dhut, Yakkha, Limbu, Lowa, and Wambule language from hill region languages group.

The Literature Situation of Terai Region MT, Published in this Period, were as below:

In publication of NA in 2011, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Kisan, Tajpuriya, Rajbanshi, Uranw, Tharu, Santhal, Dhimal, Doteli, Urdu and Maithili language from Terai region languages group.

In publication of NRB in 2011, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Dhimal, Rajbanshi, Tajpuriya, Tharu, Uranw, Bhojpuri, and Musahari language from Terai region languages group.

In publication of NA in 2012, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Maithili, Rajbanshi, Khas, Tajpuria, Uranw, Bhojpuri, Kisan, Awadhi, Tharu, Bajjika, and Dhimal language from Terai region languages group.

In publication of NA in 2013, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Dhimal, Kewarat, Bajjika, Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Uranw, Tajpuria, Maithili, Tharu, Marwadi, and Hindi language from Terai region languages group.

In publication of NFDIN in 2013, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Uranw, Awadhi, Dhimal, Tajpuriya, Rajbanshi and Tharu language from Terai region languages group.

In publication of NFDIN in 2014, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Meche, Dhimal, Awadhi, Rajbanshi, Uranw, Tajpuria, Kisan, and Tharu language from Terai region languages group.

In publication of NA in 2015, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Awadhi, Urdu, Uranw, Kisan, Kewarat, Khas, Doteli, Tajpuria, Tharu Pachhim, Tharu Purba, Dhimal, Bajjika, Bhojpuri, Magahi, Maithili, and Rajbanshi language from Terai region languages group.

In publication of NFDIN in 2015, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Dhimal, Magahi, Kewarat, Gangai, Rajbanshi, Tajpuria, Tharu, and Uranw language from Terai region languages group.

In publication of NFDIN in 2016, aforesaid anthology, included poems of Uranw, Tajpuria, Tharu, Dhimal, and Rajbanshi language from Terai region languages group.

Languages Mentioned in NPHC11 Report with Literature and without Literature

The languages which were listed in NPHC report of 2011, all language has no literatures. On the basis of above-mentioned data, following table justifies this fact.

Table 5

SN	Ecological Region	Number of Languages	Languages with literatures	Languages without literatures
1	Mountain	17 (12 + 5)	1. Sherpa, 2. Thami, 3. Kulung, 4. Thulung, 5. Khaling, 6. Jirel, 7. Hyolmo, 8. Lohorung, 9. Mewahang, 10. Lhomi, 11. Dolpali, 12. Yamphu.	1. Byansi, 2. Dhuleli, 3. Waling (Walung), 4. Bajhangi, 5. Lhopa.
2	Hill	61 (30 + 31)	1. Tamang, 2. Newar, 3. Magar, 4. Bantawa, 5. Gurung, 6. Limbu, 7. Chamling, 8. Chepang, 9. Danuwar, 10. Sunuwar, 11. Majhi, 12. Yakkha, 13. Thakali, 14. Chhantyal, 15. Wambule, 16. Puma, 17. Nachhiring, 18. Dura, 19. Lapcha, 20. Bahing, 21. Baram, 22. Achhami, 23. Kham, 24. Koyi (Koyu), 25. Kumal, 26. Dumi, 27. Ghale, 28. Jero (Jerung), 29. Dungmali, 30. Chhintang.	1. Sampang, 2. Tibetan, 3. Pahari, 4. Hayu, 5.Chhiling, 6. Chinese, 7. Sanskrit^#, 8. Kaike, 9. Khamchi (Raute), 10. Tilung, 11. Oriya, 12. Lingkhim, 13. Kusunda, 14. Koche, 15. Sam, 16. Dzongkha, 17. Mizo, 18. Nagamese, 19. English, 20. Rai, 21. Athpariya, 22. Spanish, 23. Russia, 24. Belhare, 25. Phangduwali, 26. Surel, 27. Baitadeli, 28. Bankariya, 29. French*, 30. Manange, 31. Gadhawali.
3	Terai	43 (20 + 23) 17+61+43 = 121 (121 + 2 Nepali and Sign Language) = 123	1. Maithili, 2. Bhojpuri, 3. Tharu, 4. Awadhi, 5. Santhali, 6. Uranw, 7. Dhimal, 8. Kisan, 9. Tajouriya, 10. Khash, 11. Doteli, 12. Bajjika, 13. Urdu, 14. Rajbanshi, 15. Bote, 16. Hindi*, 17. Meche, 18. Magahi, 19. Kagate, 20. Ganagai.	1. Bangla, 2. Rajsthani, 3. Angika, 4. Bhujel, 5. Darai, 6. Raji, 7. Khariya, 8. Panjabi, 9. Musalman, 10. Sindhi, 11. Hariyanwi, 12. Kurmali, 13. Kuki, 14. Assami (Assames), 15. Malpande, 16. Arabi*, 17. Jumli, 18. Dailekhi, 19. Sonaha, 20. Dadeldhuri, 21. Bajureli, 22. Darchuleli, 23. Sadhani.
	G Total	123 (121 + 2)	62 (12 + 30 + 20)	59 (5 + 31 + 23)

Note:

*These languages are originated in other countries, not in Nepal. Among them, some are boarder languages, too. These languages have great number of speakers, and rich literatures with long history were spoken them.

^#It is classical language; it is not used as communication language by folks.

Above table shows 12 languages have literature out of 17 mountain region languages, 30 languages have literature out of 61 hill region languages, and 20 languages have literature out of 43 Terai region languages. In the comparison of mountain and hill region languages, more Terai region languages do not have literature. In total, 62 languages only of all three ecological regions have literature out of 121, except Nepali which is far rich in literature being official or nation language for centuries.

This data shows, 59 languages of Nepal do not have literature. The fact is that among 59 languages, 20 languages are foreign languages or boarder languages and one classical language which do have great number of speaker and rich literature tradition outside Nepal. These languages known as other languages which do not have Nepal proper origin.

Languages with Literature but not Listed in NPHC Report

Practically some languages do have literature but they are not listed in NPHC 2011 national report. Such languages are Mugali, Kewarat, Bhote-Lama, Lowa, Marwadi, Humli and Nhiba.

Mugali language page has been published in Gorkhapatra Daily New Nepal page at least for five years where poem, story, essay etc. verities of literature has been published. Curriculum Development Center (CDC) published the text books of this language for class 1 to 5 and had been teaching for couple of years. Poems of Mugali also published in poem anthology series published by NA and NFDIN.

It is found that poem collection (Bharauwa Hanyagel, Feb. 2012) of Kewaran language already published. Many poems of this language also published in poem anthologies of NA and NFDIN. Even academic essays published in Sayapatri multilingual half yearly journal issue 23 (May-Oct, 2011), issue 27 (May-Oct, 2013) etc. and Kewart Dictionary (Kewarat Shabda Sangraha, July 2013) was published by NA.

Similarly, Bhote-Lama language page has been published in Gorkhapatra Daily New Nepal page for couple of years where poem, story, essay etc. verities of literature has been published. Poem of Bhote-Lama language was included in Matribhasa Divas-2012, poem anthology published by NA.

Two poems of Lowa language, were compiled in Thunga anthology of poems in indigenous languages of Nepal, in 2013 which was published by NFDIN.

Poem of Marwadi language was compiled in Matribhasa Divas-2013, poem anthology published by NA. This language has been publishing in Gorkhapatra Nay Nepal page for few years.

New two languages Humli and Nhiba's poems were published in Matribhasa Divas-2015, poem anthology published by NA.

Languages have been published in Gorkhapatra New Nepal Page

Gorkhapatra Corporation, Nepal government owned media, commenced to publish in various MT news pages attaching with Gorkhapatra Daily, declaring "One step in the direction of inclusion" theme on the occasion of 'International Indigenous Day' on 9 Aug 2007. It was commenced publishing pages of five languages i.e. Newari (Nepal Bhasa), Limbu, Tamang, Maithili and Gurung and the numbers of MT languages have been becoming 34 then. Those MT languages are as below.

1. Newari 2. Limbu 3. Tamang 4. Maithili 5. Gurung 6. Magar

7. Rai 8. Bhojpuri 9. Awadhi 10. Tharu 11. Sherpa 12. Baram

13. Uranw 14. Dhimal 15. Majhi 16. Urdu 17. Tajpuriya 18. Kisan

19. Danuwar 20. Jirel 21. Marwadi 22. Sunuwar 23. Thami 24. Bajjika

25. Lhomi 26. Kumal 27. Rajbanshi 28. Darai 29. Magahi 30. Sanskrit

31. Chepang 32. Bantawa 33. Mugal 34. Meche

The news pages of these MTs are publishing more or less twice each and every month. Such publication has been provided regular publishing opportunity of news and various literary texts in the pages to the respective languages.

Publications of various MTs Textbooks of CDC

CDC commenced to write and publish textbooks for class 1 to 5 as optional subject of various MTs since 1998. MTs books publication work is still going on. Including Maithili, Bhojpuri, Awadhi, Tamang, Limbu, Bantawa, Chamlng all together 24 MTs textbooks has been published to this year 2016. (See Appendix-A)

Similarly, child reference books in three items entitled story, biography and culture were published in each and every fifteen MTs. (See Appendix-B)

MTs Literature Publication of NA

NA has been published MTs literary books and some magazines for couple of years.

(a) MTs Literary: NA published poem, novel, essay, epic, play genres' literature books of Maithili, Bhojpuri, Limbu, Urdu, and Newari MTs. (See Appendix-C)

(b) MTs Literary Magazines: NA has been published Saypatri (multilingual, half yearly mag.), Angan (Maithili, yearly mag.), Thayabu (Nepal Bhasa/Newari, yearly mag.), Phaktannglung (Limbu, yearly mag.), and Mahuwa (Bhojpuri, yearly mag.).

MTs Literature Publication of NFDIN

NFDIN published poem, novel, story, and gajal genres' literature books of Puma, Dungmali, Bantawa, Magar and Nachhiring MTs. (See Appendix-D)

Genres-wise Literary Books of various MTs

NPHC 2011 report officially identified and listed 123 languages, but it is known that very few languages do have long literary tradition. Some MTs of Nepal which has a bit long literary tradition, following table illustrates the present situation of literary genres in those MTs.

Table 6

S. No.	Language	Availability of books in literary genres
S. No.	Language	Long Epic	Short Epic	Novel	Story	Essay	Play
1	Nepal Bhasa/ Newari	3	15 +	30 +	100 +	12	7
2	Tamang	-	2	2	2	3	4
3	Limbu	2	6	14	14	7	4
4	Magar	-	1	11	9	1	-
5	Chamling	1	1	1	1	3	2
6	Tharu	2	6	5	10	10	-
7	Bhojpuri	1	4	4	1	-	-
8	Maithili	7	12	18+	18+	3	2
9	Awadhi	1	2	1	4	2	-

Observing above table's illustration of language-wise MTs literature situation, those languages could develop literature which was close to dictatorship state power (like Newari language) or suburb area's language from state power center, however, not cared by it (like Tamang, spoken surrounding the capital city, its literature has been developed rapidly after the restoration of democracy and establishment of republic) or boundary languages (like Limbu, Maithili, Bhojpuri etc.).

Conclusion

It is concluded that language and literature has flourished better in independence and democracy or republic Nepal than dictatorship like Rana and Panchayat reign. In dictatorship reign, most of the Nepali MTs were suppressed and some hardly practice literature under the close observation of the rulers. After the restoration of democracy in 1990, all Nepali MTs enjoyed the warmth of the democratic morning sun, which got started waving it in the air bearing the buds. While rose the republic age since 2006, MTs literature got the free chance to blossom and odor pervasively. However, expected success of MTs literature is beyond the seen hope of horizon.

The Constitution of Nepal 2015, encoded "All languages spoken as the mother tongues in Nepal are the languages of the nation." According to the essence of the constitution, all languages should be provided equal opportunity. Nepal origin languages should properly be identified and conduct the literature survey following language survey. To develop literature of all MTs, new MTs Academy should be established. For effective use and full development of MTs literature, government should assure the environment of education and media in respective MTs.

The MTs of Nepal are not only assets of concerning speaker or community or nation, it is valuable asset in the world of human beings. Therefore, to save the languages or MTs and to develop literature in their respective languages is our unavoidable duty.

***

Reference

Akela, G.P. (2008). Present situation of Maithili literature and its problems. Rastriya sahitya sangosthi- 2064 (Seminar on national literature-2008), pp 133-150, Kathmandu: Nepal Academy.

Budha Magar, B. K. & Maden, R. (Ed.) (2003). Rastriya bhasaka Kavita sangalo (An anthology of poems [national language]), Kathmandu: National committee for development of nationalities.

Chaudhary, M. (2008). Present situation of Tharu literature and its problems. Rastriya sahitya sangosthi- 2064 (Seminar on national literature-2008), pp 161-182. Kathmandu: Nepal Academy.

Central Bureau of Statistics. (2011). Natonal Population and Housing Census 2011 (Natonal Report), Kathmandu: Bureau of Statistics, National Planning Commission.

Central Bureau of Statistics. (2001). Population of Nepal, Kathmandu: National Planning Commission.

Central Bureau of Statistics. (1991). Population Census, Kathmandu: National Planning Commission.

Central Bureau of Statistics. (1981). Population Census, Kathmandu: National Planning Commission.

Central Bureau of Statistics. (1971). Population Census, Kathmandu: National Planning Commission.

Central Bureau of Statistics. (1961). Population Census, Kathmandu: National Planning Commission.

Central Bureau of Statistics. (1952/54). Population Census, Kathmandu: National Planning Commission.

Central Bureau of Statistics. (1911). Population Census, Kathmandu: National Planning Commission.

Eppele, M. J, Paul Lewis, Regmi, D. R. & Yadav, Y. P. (Eds.). 2012. Ethnologue: Languages of Nepal, Kathmadndu: Central Department of Linguistics and SIL International.

Gurung, Harka. (2007). From Exclusion to Inclusion, Socio-Political Agenda for Nepal, Kathmandu: Social Inclusion Research Fund.

Kainla, B. & Jongan, A. (1999). Rastriya bhasaka Kavita sangalo (An anthology of poems [national language])-1999, Kathmandu: National committee for development of nationalities.

Kainla, B. & Tumyahang, A. (2008). Present situation of Limbu literature and its problems. Rastriya sahitya sangosthi- 2064 (Seminar on national literature-2008), pp 85-97, Kathmandu: Nepal Academy.

Koirala, M. (Ed.). (1993). Rastriya bhasaka kavitaharu- 2050 (An anthology of poems of national languages-1993), Kathmandu: Nepal Academy.

Lem Gurung. R. B. (2008). Present situation of Gurung literature and its problems. Rastriya sahitya sangosthi- 2064 (Seminar on national literature-2008), pp 70-74, Kathmandu: Nepal Academy.

Manadhar Dhital, S. & Tumyahang, A. (Ed.). Matribhasa divas-2011 Kavita Sangalo (Mother Tongue Day-2011, an anthology of poems]), Kathmandu: Nepal Academy.

Manadhar Dhital, S. & Tumyahang, A. (Ed.). Matribhasa divas-2012 Kavita Sangalo (Mother Tongue Day-2012, an anthology of poems]), Kathmandu: Nepal Academy.

Manadhar Dhital, S. & Tumyahang, A. (Ed.). Matribhasa divas-2013 Kavita Sangalo (Mother Tongue Day-2013, an anthology of poems]), Kathmandu: Nepal Academy.

Pathak, V. N. & Tripathi, V. M. (2008). Present situation of Awadhi literature and its problems. Rastriya sahitya sangosthi- 2064 (Seminar on national literature-2008), pp 183-191, Kathmandu: Nepal Academy.

Pradhan,N. (2008). Present situation of Nepal bhasa literature and its problems. Rastriya sahitya sangosthi- 2064 (Seminar on national literature-2008), pp 75-84, Kathmandu: Nepal Academy.

Rai, T. M. (Ed.) (2016). Thunga: Anthology of poems in indigenous languages of Nepal, Lalitpur: National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities.

Rapacha, L. S. (Ed.) (2013). Thunga: Anthology of poems in indigenous languages of Nepal, Lalitpur: National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities.

Rapacha, L. S. (Ed.) (2014). Thunga: Anthology of poems in indigenous languages of Nepal, Lalitpur: National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities.

Rapacha, L. S. (Ed.) (2015). Thunga: Anthology of poems in indigenous languages of Nepal, Lalitpur: National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities.

Rapacha, L. S., Yalungchha, B. A, & Tumyahang, A. (2008). Indo-Nepal Kiranti languages: Past, present and challenges of tomorrow, Kathmandu: Research institute for kiratology.

Thakur. G. (2008). Present situation of Bhojpuri literature and its problems. Rastriya sahitya sangosthi- 2064 (Seminar on national literature-2008), pp 151-160, Kathmandu: Nepal Academy.

Thapa Magar, L. B. (2008). Present situation of Magar literature and its problems. Rastriya sahitya sangosthi- 2064 (Seminar on national literature-2008), pp 98-103, Kathmandu: Nepal Academy.

Tuladhar. P. S. (2013). History Nepal bhasa literature, Kathmandu: Nepal Academy.

Tumyahang. A. (2014). History formation of limbu literature, Kathmandu: Yakthung Sapak Academy.

Yonjan. A. (2008). Present situation of Tamang literature and its problems. Rastriya sahitya sangosthi- 2064 (Seminar on national literature-2008), pp 104-123, Kathmandu: Nepal Academy.

Yonjan Tamang. A. (2011). History of Tamang literature, Kathmandu: Nepal Academy.

Yadav, Y. P. (2013). Context, problem and possibilities of languages spoken in Nepal, Matribhasa divas-2013 Kavita Sangalo (Mother Tongue Day-2013, an anthology of poems]) (Manadhar Dhital, S. and Tumyahang, A. (Ed.), Kathmandu: Nepal Academy.

Appendix-A

Textbooks of MTs published by CDC up to 2016

S. No.	Name of MT	Class
1.	Maithili	1-5
2.	Bhojpuri	1-5
3.	Awadhi	1-5
4.	Tamang	1-5
5.	Limbu	1-5
6.	Bantawa Rai	1-5
7.	Chamling Rai	1-5
8.	Sherpa	1-5
9.	Gurung	1-5
10.	Magar	1-5
11.	Newar (Nepal Bhasa)	1-5
12.	Tharu	1-5
13.	Sunuwar	1-5
14.	Rajbanshi	1-5
15.	Yakkha	1-5
16.	Mugali	1-5
17.	Tharu (Madhya Chhetra/Mid Region)	1
18.	Tamang (Sabhota)	1-5
19.	Dhimal	1-5
20.	Magar (Athar Magarat)	1-5
21.	Bajjika	4
22.	Kulung	3
23.	Chepang	1
24.	Khaling Rai	1

Source: Pathyakram Gatividhi (Curriculum Activities) bulletin, 2016 April-July.

Appendix-B

Child reference materials of MTs published by CDC up to 2016

S. No.	Name of MT	Genres
1.	Maithili	Story	Biography	Culture
2.	Bhojpuri	Story	Biography	Culture
3.	Limbu	Story	Biography	Culture
4.	Tharu	Story	Biography	Culture
5.	Awadhi	Story	Biography	Culture
6.	Magar	Story	Biography	Culture
7.	Newar (Nepal Bhasa)	Story	Biography	Culture
8.	Doteli	Story	Biography	Culture
9.	Thakali	Story	Biography	Culture
10.	Chamling	Story	Biography	Culture
11.	Gurung	Story	Biography	Culture
12.	Sherpa	Story	Biography	Culture
13.	Bantawa Rai	Story	Biography	Culture
14.	Urdu	Story	Biography	Culture
15.	Sanskrit	Story	Biography	Culture

Source: Pathyakram Gatividhi (Curriculum Activities) bulletin, 2016 April-July.

Appendix-C

Lists of literature books of MTs published by NA since 1959 to 2015

S. No.	Name of book	Name of MT	Genre	Writer	Pub Year in Vikram Era
1.	Kain sur sajaabi	Maithili	Song	Dhirendra Premarshi	2061
2.	Bhanubhaktiya Ramayan (Translation)	Maithili	Long Epic	Badari Narayan Varma	2054
3.	Mithilanchalak kichhu lokkatha	Maithili	Folk tales	Dr. Ganga Prasad Akela	2055
4.	Mithilachak Lokgatha Nayak Dinabhadri	Maithili	,,	Editor Ram Bharos Kapadi Bhramar	2070
5.	Maithili Kavita Sangraha	Maithili	Poem	Dhirendra Premarshi, Rambharos Kapadi Bhramar	2053
6.	Hamar Videsh Bhraman	Maithili	Travelogue	Rewati Raman Lal	2054
7.	Andhor Mahakabya	Bhojpuri	Long Epic	Gopal Ashka	2055
8.	Bhojpuri Natak	Bhojpuri	Play	Gopal Ashka, Dr. Keshav Prasad Upadhyay	2061
9.	Tangsing Mundhum	Limbu	Classic Literature	Collector Bairagi Kainla	2052
10.	Yakthung Sumjoha	Limbu	Essay	Editor Amar Tumyahang	2070
11.	Rupmati (Translation, main writer Rudra Raj Paney)	Urdu	Novel	Dr. Tahira Naiyar	2054
12.	Siddhicharan Gha:ma:	Newari	Essay	Phadindra Ratna Bajracharya	2053
13.	Hakan megu khan sahityayaguya he	Newari	Literature Review	Madhavlal Karmacharya	2060

Source: Books list published by NA

Appendix-D

Lists of literature books of MTs published by NFDIN in 2015 and 2016

S. No.	Name of book	Name of MT	Genre	Writer	Pub Year in Vikram Era
1.	Puma Mundum	Puma	Classic Literature	Prabin Puma (collector)	2015
2.	Sakhawa Mirikha	Dungmali	Gajal	Arjun Rai	2015
3.	Chuwa Bung	Bantawa	Poem	Deepak Rai	2015
4.	Mana Kong	Bantawa	Poem	Asha Saplaten Rai	2015
5.	Al Kumsho: Aashyalaankali	Sunuwar	Poem	Iswar Kiran Sunuwar	2015
6.	Molo Dhwong-ra Rangka	Magar	Poem	Bom Gharti Magar	2015
7.	Magar Rikaharikung Rihingko	Magar	Story	Hiramati Rana Sinjali Magar	2015
8.	Lungta Nang Samsibung	Bantawa	Gajal	Susan Rai (Sagun Susara)	2016
9.	Minma	Bantawa	Poem	Ashim Songmen	2016
10.	Ganmet Baji	Magar	Story	Bishnu Kumar Sinjali	2016
11.	Chheten Ahan	Magar	Novel	Durga Bahadur Dhega Magar	2016
12.	Jarmisiu Pau Magar Khaml	Magar	Gajal	Dilip Budha Magar	2016
13.	Hidum	Nachhiring	Poem	Pratap Sing Nachhiring	2016

Source: NFDIN Records.

# Note

This paper was presented in 'International Seminar on Language Documentation, its Significance and Scope in NE India' Organized by Central Institute of Technology, Kokrajhar, Assam, 16 October 2016

Search This Blog

YAKTHUNG YAK (ᤕᤠᤰᤌᤢᤱ ᤕᤰ)